COMPUTERS AND SOCIETY
 CASE STUDY: GHANA

 FLORENCE BANAHENE
 GHANA EDUCATION SERVICE
 UNIVERSITY BOX 283
 U.S.T., KUMASI
  GHANA.
  1995			


A B S T R A C T

Society is about to enter a new era full of exciting development and challenges.  The role of this
technological development of mankind in society, computer power, for beneficial purposes in
area of Government, Agriculture, Medicine, Architecture, Engineering, Education, etc.
The extracted information is vital to the government for effective planning, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of policy decision. The entire world has become affected by the
marvel of the twentieth century termed "Computer age" but there are adverse problems of using
computer power in a third world country like Ghana.



INTRODUCTION
Development is usually defined principally in terms of economic growth: as countries experience
increased growth their productive capacity expands and they develop.  The dependence of the
third world on developing countries, is felt sharply in the area of information technology.  This
dependence in extremely important because of the very strong and direct link information
technology has with all facets of a country's performance and development.  Developing
countries depend on developed countries for the latest technology in computing hardware and
software and for the actual gathering, storage and dissemination of news.

	The Computer is an electronic device capable of interpreting and executing programmed
commands for Input, Output, storage, computational and logical operations.  The four
fundamental components of the computer, called the hardware.  The input units are used to
enter data into main computer memory.  On microcomputers, the primary Input unit is the
keyboard.  On large computers, diverse number and types of input devices such as CRT
terminal (Cathode Ray Tube), tape drives and disk drives are used.  The primary output
devices on large computer are printers on CRT terminal is under the control of the program
stored in main computer memory.  The program or software will format the data to be printed
or displayed on the issue the commands to cause the output.


	Auxiliary storage devices commonly used with large computers are magnetic tape and
magnetic disk.  It is merely an extension of main computer memory.  When the amount of main
memory that can be economically available on a computer is limited, programs and data which
do not all fit in main memory are stored on auxiliary storage until they are needed, at which
time they are loaded into main memory and used.

	The processor unit of the computer consists of main memory and the Central Processing
Unit (CPU).  When the computer is program is interpreted and executed by the CPU.  The
instructions cause the computer to perform the input, arithmetic, logical, output and storage
operations which can take on a computer.

	In Government, Agriculture, Medicine, Architecture, Engineering, Education, etc. in virtually,
every imaginable field and enterprise, computers have had an enormous impact.  Computers
would be employed for the same fundamental reasons:

1.	To increase speed
2.	To reduce cost and finally,
3.	Improve quality.

	Although individuals and enterprises have always aspired to these goals, the opportunity to
achieve them has never been so great.
The basic three-part role of the computers in our lives are:

1.Increase Speed: Computers save time and resources, work that could be done manually for a
period of two weeks can be done in a minute with the help of computers.
2.Reduce Cost:  It reduces development and operating cost even though the computers itself
are expensive.
3.Improve quality:  It improves quality of goods and services,  because computers in some
manufacturing situations operate more reliably and precisely than the most skilled human
workers.

	Computer-based management information system, provide fast, reliable and accurate
statistics on sales, marketing, financial and personnel activities thus helping executives make
better decisions.

	In the computer age many of the governmental traditionally repetitive time wasting tasks
can be minimised or eliminate.  The hard and software are applied to improve office conditions,
efficiency and productivity.  The major areas in which office automation is bringing about
notable changes in the white collar jobs are Word Processing. It is simply writing with a
computer what is to use the computer like a typewriter.  Text is entered on a keyboard and it
appears on a screen.  A word processor lets the user insert, delete, edit, rearrange, format and
merge textual material until a document appears exactly as it should.

	One of the most widely used software packages for management support is the electronic
Spreadsheet.  The user enters as input data the values which are to be used in the calculation
and also enters the formulas which are to be used to perform the desired calculation.  The
program (software) performs calculations on the input data based upon the formulas entered
by the user.  For example, the sales and cost figures for a company could be entered into
computer memory under the control of he electronic spreadsheet program.  After the data has
been entered and the profit calculated a Sales Manager might ask what would be the profit if
sales are increased by 20% and the cost are decreased by 5%. By creating simple commands, the
Manager can cause the program to recalculate values using the rows and columns of data. 
Electronic Spreadsheets are an invaluable tool for decision support.

	Information can be communicated to people many times faster in a graphic form than in a
writing form.  There are many software packages which can create graphic output.  This output
includes line chart, pie charts and bar charts.  These charts can be produced in a variety of
colours. The charts are generated through the use of computer programs stored in many memory
which read and analyse data and then generate the charts based upon the analysis.

	Computer graphics software is widely used by management personnel when reviewing
information and when communicating information to others within the organisation.

	Software packages such as the electronic spreadsheet and word processing generally run
independently of one another, therefore, the data entered for the spreadsheet program would
have to be re-entered for the Word Processing program.  This inability of programs to
communicate with one another and with a command set of data has been overcome through the
use of integrated software.

	Integrated software refers to software packages that combine functions such as Word
Processing, Electronic Spreadsheet, and Graphics into a single easy to use program. This allows
a single set of data to be used for a variety of application.  

	A further development in the integration of Personal Computer software is the use
windows.  A window is a portion of a CRT Screen that is used to display.  Information: 
Windows software allows multiple windows to be displayed on the CRT Screen at the same
time.

	A database is a collection of data organised in a manner which allows retrieval and use of
that data.  A database consists of one or more files.  A file is a collection of related data.  For
example, a file that consists of names of addresses of customers used in a mailing list may be
thought of as a database.  Database software allows the  user to organise the data in the
manner required for the application, allows retrieval of that data and also allows the user to
easily add, delete or change data in the database.

	In addition, provision is made in most database as file management software for the
manipulation of the database,  such as arranging the data in ascending or descending sequence
by sorting and displaying all or selected data from he database by specifying a few simple
commands in English - like form.

	Database and file a management software allows a Personal Computer to act very much
like a mainframe in terms of its ability to access and manipulate data.

	Computers come in all size and also with a large variety of capabilities.  Some are slow
processors, while others are very fast processors.  Some have very small memory, while others
have very large memory.  A user must select the right size of computer for the job at hand.  It is
useful to speak of computer size and capacities by putting the Computer into four categories. 
The categories are:  micro computer, mini-computer, mainframe computer and super computer.

	Microcomputers are usually found in appliances automobiles and Personal Computers. 
Personal Computers are widely used in the business environment by personnel at all levels. 
They are often used in conjunction with specialized software packages that have gained almost
universal acceptances.  Personal computers are an increasingly important tool and integral part
of the computing facilities of most companies.  Its major advantage is immediate access by the
user.  The computer usually sits on a desk and the user can access its processing capabilities
through the use of a software package.

	Mini-computers are somewhat larger than micro-computers.  It is used by several users in a
small company or department or school  They handle 24, 32 or more bits at a time.  They often
come with large disk or tapes as secondary storage devices.  They are suited for Engineering and
Scientific application which do not require extensive Input/Output operations.  They are
intended for organisations which are sophisticated enough to write their own software.

	Mainframe computers are the large computers used by large companies, government agencies
and universities for their administrative work.  They are used for payroll, personnel record
keeping and keeping track of orders or maintaining a list of all the items kept on hand in a
warehouse.  It handles data and instructions 36, 48 and 64 bits at a time.  It has a large primary
storage capacities and one or more processors with faster instruction processing speeds.  It can
process hundreds of different programs and handle hundreds of different peripheral devices
(terminals disk and tape drives, printers etc.) for hundreds of different users at the same time.

	Finally, Super computers are the very fastest and largest computers.  They are most often
used for research, for analysing satellite data or for other very large problems like weather
forecast.  Speed is measured by the number of complete multiplication  or division (floating
point operations) per second.  They are expensive to purchase and to operate.  It can perform
arithmetic calculations at a speed of 160 millions to 1.7 billion floating point operations per
second.

	Computers are used to manage reports and assessment.  Computers help city planners
develop highways, parks, public services and traffic control systems as well as plan equitable
and economical zoning ordinances.  Budgets are set and systems of taxation are planned using
computer.

	Internal Revenue Service uses computer to record and the information sent in by tax payers
on their returns and to send out forms and notices.  Computers are involved in all stages of the
tax paying and tax collecting process beginning with the calculation or personal computer you
use in preparing your return.

	Tax planning programs calculate a company's tax payments by taking profits, expenses,
deductions and tax laws into accounts.

	In the Insurance Company, Computers are use in analysing insurance data and for figuring
out premiums, billing, investment, analysis, policy approval, keeping track of policy holders,
records and processing claims.  Computers are used for statistical analyses of the risk involve in
insuring various groups (life/accident).  The data bases required to store and utilize this mass
of data efficiently and effectively are necessarily enormous and integrated data processing
systems is being used.

	Public utilities like power, water and communication, computers are used for billing record
keeping and accounting.  Rate schedules are set and state a local taxes are calculated with the
aid of computers.  Utilities also use computers to create operational simulation models that
project how a Company's equipment  will function under any hypothetical situation.

	In the recent dailies, Electricity Corporation of Ghana is to introduce a
`pay-as-you-consume' metering system in the country to replace the credit consumption system. 
The new computerized meters, known as "Cash power 2000" have indicators that show the
consumers how much is left for use at any given time.  This meter will eliminate meter reading,
disconnections, and reconnections that usually create a lot of inconvenience to consumers.

	In banking and finance, besides the basic administrative operations such as payroll and
personnel, savings accounts are automatically updated on when deposits or withdrawals take
place and interest is compounded electronically.  Statements and analyses of loans and
investments are prepared with the help of computers.

	Computerising a business can greatly reduce expenditure but software is necessary to make
a system work.  It is largely through the use of business application packages that business save
time and money.  A general ledger packages uses sales, profit, loss and expenses data and
assembles it into coherent records and reports.  A labour analysis package software on disk
storage media are used for those departments working with data such as pay scales, hours
worked, tax rates and pay roll deductions.

	In agriculture, computer packages for statistical analysis (SPSS) software which provides
users with a unified and comprehensive set of programs designed to enable you to statistically
analyse, transform or manipulate your data by the use of straight forward SPSS Control
Language.  The object of an agricultural experiment is generally to measure the effect of varying
some factor, for example, the level of protein in poultry diets.  The variability of the birds with
which he has to work means that if the protein were kept at a fixed level considerable variation
would be observed in the yield.  It is therefore logical to expect that if different levels of protein
are applied to different birds, the variation in the weight gain observed would be partly to the
different levels of feeding and partly to the basic variation between birds fed at the same level.


	Statistical analysis of data will use computer a modern technology.  Computer programs
and packages for the calculation of statistical analyses ranges from simple programs to
calculate analysis of variation for a particular simple experiment structure. Packages can also
analyse data from designs with several levels of variation and any form of treatment structure. 
The standard manner of storing data on computer is in a 2 dimensional matrix or array. 
Graphical output in the form of histogram, mean variance, normal distribution and regression
analysis are available with most packages and normally include frequency distribution for single
variable and scatter plots for pairs of variables.

	In Forestry, computers are used for inventory analyses of the forest species (data) with the
help of questionnaires using sampling data for making forecasting.

	In the dailies, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has expedited the clearing
procedures for imported industrial chemicals.  It is an effort to ensure environmental safety,
protect the ordinary citizen from the harmful effects of the misuse of industrial chemical and to
improve delays in clearning goods at the ports which also makes the price of the chemical
expensive.

	Computers have become indispensable in the development of several products. It is also
becoming of increasing important in quantitative planning, design and in the evaluation of
military strategies.  One of the latest attractions of the computer is its extensive use in medical
sciences especially in the developed world.


	The appropriate utilization of electronic computer by medical researchers has helped to
raise the technical and scientific levels even though its use entails some amount of cost.  The
economic advantages outweigh any initial cost.

	Computers in medical research eliminate extensive waste and duplicating in methods of
research programs and can also enable a greater flexibility making available alternative methods
with cross-checking devices.

	Computers make it easier in setting up hypothesis, writing differential equations and
comparing solutions.  There are also special purpose medical computers.  Among such is the one
used in sequential photomicrographic analysis of biological process such as capillary
bloodflows and oineradiographs.  The computer can produce a list of possible diagnosis
consistent with the medical knowledge for a given set of symptoms presented by the patient.  It
is capable of calculating probabilities for diagnostic possibilities.  It can compile statistics which
relate symptoms to disease combinations and which evaluate disease treatment prognostic
results.

	Computers are a great asset to haematological laboratory analysis.  The reliability of
laboratory tests depends on the way blood is collected, labelled, correct storage and delivery. 
Currently, this essential work is done manually in Ghana.

	The trend of blood count is even better appreciated when the figures are plotted as a time
related graph.  Computers can also be useful in the X-ray section and in the administrative
setup.  It works variously to speed up work in terms of data analysis, output of results, data
storage and retrievals.  The results are obviously more reliable and less costly.

	The Okomfo Anokye Teaching Hospital in Kumasi has establish a hearing assessment centre
with a special purpose computer.  A special earphone is used by patient and with the medical
officer beside the computer keyboard and a screen, the percentage defect of the ear will appear
on the screen for diagnosis and treatment.

	At the Kumasi Medical School where computers are used, information to be fed into the
machine are from two main sources:

1.	Counselling hospital patients with questionnaires; and
2.	Data collected through the community field workers with  questionnaires.

	Software packages like Harvard graphics, Mouse, Excel, SPCC and Database are used to
statistically analyse this data to produce reports in the form of Piechart, Barchart, Frequency
tables etc.  The computer output are converted into slides, Optic sheets and with projector
covering it, it appears on a screen for students to use for lectures.

	The computer has brought about many improvements in the field of drawing and design. 
Computer aided drafting (CAD) has become one of the most important modelling tools used by
engineers, drafters and designers.  A CAD (Computer aided Design) system consists of people,
software and hardware.  The people who operate the CAD system may be Engineers or
Architects depending on the task involved.

	An Architects can create very precise electronic drawings.  The drawings can then be stored
in the memory of the CAD system.  CAD drawings can represent mechanical parts, electronic
circuits, architectural designs or many other things.

	A CAD system can also calculate the strength of a mechanical part or the operational of an
electronic circuit and point out potential flaws to the designer.  Actual drawings may be
obtained from the CAD System by means of a plotter.

	The CAD system has some advantages over hand drawn designs.  The combination of
design and drafting into one function saves time and reduces chance of error.  The use of the
CAD system cuts out some of the most repetitive portions of the hand drawing thus saving
time.  New designs and changes to existing designs are much faster using CAD system than
using hand drawings. Finally, accuracy and consistency are improved from one drawing to the
next.

	In the field of engineering, computer consultants are employed and currently computer
programming is being introduce into the education curriculum.  Structures are analyse and using
algebraic matrix programs results can be produce in a minute.  Software like lotus, spreadsheet
and the GNU plots are used to plot graphs to determine the gradient.  Information or data from
laboratory test are analysed and using lotus software or by self-written programs in computer
languages like Pascal, C.plus, Fortran, etc.


	In road surveying, Lotus and Mouse are used in analysing measuring levels and height. 
Information are stored on hard disk.

	Computers are employed in the ARchitectural Department primarily for report writing using
Word Processor/Word Perfect especially in preparing questionnaires to collect information. 
This work is being done by the female workers most of them originally typist.  Besides Lotus 1,
2, 3 software is used for accounting purposes from the general ledger, income and expenditure
accounting to the balance sheet.  At the block production site, computers are employed for
inventory purposes and such information are stored on floppy disks.  The housing and planning
unit, uses micro software, like Mouse, Excel and Spreadsheet for statistical analysis of
questionnaires for policy decisions.  Output from the analysis are mainly in the form of
burchard, pie chart, frequency tables, etc.

	Scientific computing:  Computers deal with numbers, which can however represent a great
many thins.  Computer generally stimulate reality by executing programs that incorporate not a
physical but a mathematical model of some real situation or system.  Models are used to
attempt to calculate outcomes but reproduce the observed results.  Simulating, patterns of
population growth and molecular structure are used.

	Computers in education:  That is in schools and helping administrators keep track of the
business of education, helping teachers improve their students progress and helping students
learn not only about computer but also about mathematics and science.  Educators are finding
computers not threat to their own jobs but rather are available tools for students.

	In a primary school I visited, teachers are using computer with remarkable success to teach
children in primary school how to read.  A computer displays a picture of an object
accompanied by the phonetic and dictionary spelling and "speaks" the word.  The child says
the word with the computer and then spells it out on the keyboard.

	Mathematics teachers in second cycle schools who have computers have found that
computers performs a double valuable role in their classrooms.  Since writing a program to solve
a problem requires that a student be completely comfortable not only with programming
techniques but also with the basic mathematics concepts represented by the problem. 
Currently, educational administrators are using computers to compile and produce class list
and schedules to organise and evaluate testing and in compilation of continuous assessment
forms.

	It is now apparent that experience with computers must be a part of the education of all
members of society.  An individual cannot fully understand our emerging culture and be a
productive citizen without a first hand knowledge of how to use and apply computer to the
solution of every day problem. If computers were suddenly silenced, the world would be thrown
into instant chaos.  The computer is an integral part of the world's activities.  With millions of
computers in the offices, in manufacturing plants, in schools and in homes, it is easy to stand in
aware of the tremendous technological achievements which have been made during the last 40
years.

	It cannot be assumed, however, that the computer together with other technological
advancements will be the solution to all of the world's problems.  Some people have begun to
question whether technology and the remarkable advances in the computer industry will
ultimately contribute to the quality of life for the next generation.  Is it possible that the misuse
of the computer will threaten many basic freedoms which people enjoy, results in mass
unemployment and alter our lifestyles in a negative manner.

	The world is rapidly changing from what has been called the "Industrial age" to a "Computer
or Information age."  Many societal changes are taking place, these changes brought about by the
computer, are dramatically altering the way people live and work.  Through the use of electronic
processing of information, the manner in which people play, the way they communicate, how
they learn, where they learn and where they work will be substantially changed in the years to
come.. Computerized games, banking, shopping, access to newspapers and other information
sources are but part of today's emerging lifestyles.

	Much has been written about how computer can improve productivity in business at all
levels, in the offices, in ware houses, in design and manufacturing and in the executive office.  It
is now being recognised that computer do more than just improve productivity.  Computers are
causing fundamental changes to occur in the business organisation.  Job duties are changing, job
titles are changing and even more importantly, the nature of the work is changing.

	"Office automation" will create now jobs but some jobs will be put at risk in one way or
another.  All authorities agree that the use of computer will radically change the way work is
done.  Thus if individuals are to remain employed, their job skills must be upgraded.
	The information revolution has brought about another changes, a change from physical
labour to mental labour.  Rapid technological changes place tremendous pressure on the worker
to keep up with the changes.  There must be constant learning in order to apply thus new
technology. In some cases people have become so involved with learning and using computer
that social interaction decreases and a type of "marriage" between the individual and the
machine occurs, completely altering the individuals lifestyles.

	Computer speed and accuracy and the way in which they shorten lines, hasten deliveries,
organise inventories and improve product quality are well known and generally appreciated. 
What bothers some people is that personal information kept in computer system can be so
quickly retrieved, so widely accessed, and so easily cross-referenced with other personal data
to paint a potentially damaging portrait.



	With computer CRT terminals becoming a part of the work environments for employees, the
question of health and safety of individuals working with these devices has become an
important area of study.  Surveys have revealed that the users suffered from more visual
problems, headaches, muscles strain, backaches, stress and other ills than non users.

	Such work-station improvement as screen hoods, filters indirect lighting, adjustable chairs
and specific screen brightness, character size and keyboard height can alleviate these problems.

	Mechanisation and automation have freed man's muscles from his burden and have further
straightened his back.  Above all, machines have made possible for him to devote more of his
time to intellectual pursuits. It is therefore inevitable that man should also invert machines to
aid his thinking.  Currently, the most spectacular of such machines is the computer.